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troop-contributing countries (TCCs). The benefits for the international community include addressing human suffering and stemming negative externalities, such as conflict spillover, terrorism, and refugee flows. Externalities are greater for neighbours of the conflict-affected country, which may motivate troop contributions (Uzonyi 2015 ; Bove and Elia 2011 ; Passmore et al. 2018 ). Other interests that states seek to realise by contributing troops include the desire to enhance prestige or legitimacy (Victor 2010 ; Bellamy and Williams 2013
-making. National government agencies may often work together in networks to deal with specific foreign policy issues without involving other domestic actors or global/transnational actors (Metzl 2001 ). For example, foreign policy, military and intelligence agencies routinely work together when dealing with global terrorism threats. Indeed, studies show that failure to provide effective interagency coordination can lead to disastrous outcomes when it comes to preventing terrorism (Zegart 2009 ). Type 5: Domestic policy
Any threat that emerges as newly articulated is in fact built upon these broader representations of danger that ebb and flow according to the political and historical context of what the Other denotes. These Others include ‘old threats’ such as the Soviet Union and communism and ‘new threats’ such as Islamic fundamentalism, terrorism, drugs, Iraq, North Korea and Iran, among others. Yet the representations of danger that feed into these threats are malleable and are not very different from those representations of otherness that framed US engagement with the USSR
”, “an outpost of tyranny” and “exporter of international terrorism”’, Bush was essentially using a creative metaphor that allowed a new understanding to form on the basis of an older one, namely transposing Iran, Iraq and North Korea onto the Second World War axis of Japan, Germany and Italy. 48 Drawing on associations with Nazism and fascism to represent Iran further stigmatises it in the view of other states, so the US creates very powerful signifiers of Self and Other, good versus evil, US versus Iran. 49
describes thus: During my presidency, I travelled to the United Nations Organization. A famous interviewer conducted an interview with me, and it was given wide media coverage. The first question that he asked me was, ‘Why did you take over the U.S. embassy?’ I told him, ‘Look! I have come to the United Nations, and you have asked me for an interview; why are opening the interview with this question?!’ They would not let go of that incident. They have been trying to portray it as a cruel act of terrorism
( 2017 ), ‘ Towards UN counter-terrorism operations? ’, Third World Quarterly , 38 : 6 , 1215–31 . Katayanagi , Mari ( 2014 ), ‘ UN peacekeeping and human rights ’, in Jared Genser and Bruno Stagno Ugarte (eds), The United Nations Security Council in the Age of Human Rights ( Cambridge : Cambridge University Press ), 123–53 . Kathman , Jacob D
practices’ (Bigo and McCluskey 2018 : 1). CSS encompasses studies that look at security actors, security practices, and security material and visual objects while questioning their political effects on populations (Collective CASE 2006 ; Balzacq et al. 2010 ). For instance, critical scholars have extensively explored the ‘war on terror’ denouncing the dispositif of counter-terrorism policies, illiberal practices, and surveillance technologies established in democratic countries (Bigo and Tsoukala 2008 ). In the case of migration, CSS also points to the process of
the aid budget from critics, are not clear. Finally, African states are to the forefront when thinking through the relationships between development and broader foreign policy goals. This came to the fore especially in the context of discussions of terrorism and combatting the threat of ‘ungoverned spaces’, most of which are identified as being in the Middle East or Africa. In response to terrorist attacks in Algeria and Mali in 2013, Ed Miliband highlighted the threats from ‘ungoverned spaces and security vacuums’ in North Africa and for
states are broken, conflicts rife, it’s not just the people of those countries that suffer – we suffer back at home from a surge in illegal immigration, asylum seeking and even terrorism’ (Cameron, 2011 ). The portrayals of Africa had become more complex and nuanced, with the Conservatives’ transition from opposition to government making superficial and one-dimensional renderings of the continent harder to maintain. In government, the Party needed to demonstrate the differences between its approach to Africa and to development from that of
that President Obama so foolishly gave them went into terrorism and into their ‘pockets.’ The people have little food, big inflation and no human rights. The U.S. is watching! 77 Iran was quick to respond, with Foreign Ministry spokesperson Bahram Ghasemi stating: It is better for him [Trump] to try to address the US internal issues like the murder of scores killed on a daily basis in the