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the 1960s and 1970s on the basis that a high seas passage existed through the Strait of Gibraltar, which narrows to a width of only 8 miles, despite the historic 6-mile claim by Spain and the extension of Moroccan territorial waters from 3 to 12 miles in 1973. Neither claim was recognised by the United States, which at that time adhered to the old 3-mile rule. The point had practical importance during
developments after 1958 that influenced the negotiators of UNCLOS to devote more attention to protection of the marine environment than the negotiators of the Geneva Conventions include the growth of environmentalism from the late 1960s onwards; early instances of large-scale oil pollution caused by tanker accidents – the Torrey Canyon in 1967 and the Amoco Cadiz in 1978; and growing awareness during
oysters, clams, abalone and coral, are clearly treated as continental shelf resources. 47 (Sedentary species are expressly excluded from the resources to which the regime of the EEZ applies: UNCLOS art. 68.) It was, however, controversial whether crabs and lobsters fell within the definition of sedentary species; and this controversy gave rise to several disputes during the early 1960s, such as the USA
dissatisfaction with the 3-mile limit, but were not publicly admitted by States claiming only 3 miles. For example, until the late 1960s, when the practice seems to have been abandoned, the United Kingdom often issued protests saying that ‘His Majesty’s Government are obliged to place firmly on record that they do not recognise territorial jurisdiction over waters outside the limit of three miles from the coast
State jurisdiction on the high seas, particularly when considered alongside other international agreements providing comparable powers to board and search foreign ships on the high seas in other contexts. 110 Unauthorised broadcasting A further exception to the exclusivity of flag State jurisdiction concerns unauthorised broadcasting on the high seas. In the early 1960s a number
by the 1960s it was realised that seabed mining was a commercial possibility. Subsequently, polymetallic sulphide deposits (composed of copper, zinc, lead, iron, silver and gold) were discovered and, more recently, ferromanganese crusts (rich in cobalt, and also comprising platinum and rare earth elements, besides nickel and manganese). Whilst costly and technologically challenging, mining these resources remains
the nineteenth century through agreements made by shipowners trading on certain routes. Routeing systems first began to be prescribed at an international governmental level in the 1960s. According to regulation 10(2) of Chapter V of the SOLAS Convention, the IMO is ‘recognised as the only international body for developing guidelines, criteria and regulations on an international level for ships
the 1960s as a result of State practice, as recognised by the ICJ in the Fisheries Jurisdiction cases (1974), 34 UNCLOS not only extends the coastal State’s right to exploit and regulate living resources to a much greater area, it also subjects that right to a number of duties. Other economic resources Article 56(1)(a) gives the coastal State ‘sovereign rights … with
. Article 6(2) contained a similar provision in respect of adjacent States. Thus, in the case of both opposite and adjacent coasts, the 1958 Convention required that the States concerned should first seek to agree on a boundary. 63 During the 1960s and 1970s, some fifty continental shelf boundary agreements were concluded, involving both States that were parties to the 1958