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’, 34 Harvard International Law Journal (1993) 445. 38 E.g. UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 10 December 1982, UN Doc. A/CONF. 62/122, reprinted in 21 International Legal Materials (1982) 1261; Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation, 7 December 1944, 15 UNTS 295
Council observers. The amendment (the ‘Nuuk criteria’) required aspiring observers to submit comprehensive applications detailing how they fulfilled the seven observer criteria, including demonstration of Arctic interests; financial and material contributions to the work of the Council; recognition of the Arctic states’ sovereignty and jurisdiction over the region; and support for the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, the prevailing legal framework for the Arctic. Furthermore, the Task Force on Institutional Cooperation had produced, during the Swedish chairmanship
, speaking and acting The architecture of acceptable and unacceptable State action in the Arctic is secured in hard and soft laws, such as the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, and also global conventions on other issues relating to biodiversity, trade, the Polar Code of the International Maritime Organization and so on. Compliance with these rules is often optional and sometimes binding, but, in any case, the content of the rules tends to be developed through formal political processes of negotiation (at the international level). These rules also tend to be anchored to
International Law (1992) 54. 111 Ibid. at 78–80. 112 E.g. UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 10 December 1982, UN Doc. A/CONF. 62/122, reprinted in 21 International Legal Materials (1982) 1261, articles 59, 69, 70(4), 74, 83
–2. 105 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 10 December 1982, UN Doc. A/CONF. 62/122, reprinted in 21 International Legal Materials (1982) 1261, article 64; Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982, Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish
. 27 Butare Indictment, 26 May 1997, ICTR-97-21-1. See Rwanda Not So Innocent When Women Become Killers (London, Africa Watch, 1995). 28 Established under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 10 December 1982, UN Doc. A/CONF.62/122, reprinted in 21 International Legal Materials (1982
. 77 M. Bedjaoui, above note 74 at 87. 78 S. Chatterjee, ‘The Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States: an evaluation after fifteen years’, 40 International and Comparative Law Quarterly (1990) 669. The renegotiation of Part XI of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, 10 December 1982, UN
Sea under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). This dispute has become more important since the early 2000s because of gas and oil deposits, with both countries establishing drilling platforms. The issue has become militarised, with China’s growing military power allowing it to extend patrols into new areas and bringing the two countries’ forces into regular proximity in disputed territories. Observers fear that the situation could trigger armed conflict between them. In 2008 China and Japan reached a ‘political agreement’ on exploitation of the East