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the use of pyrotechnics, abusive chants and banners, and violence. The use of violence has led to the ultras becoming a media folk devil in many countries (Cere, 2002; Marchi, 2005; Doidge, 2015a). Although most groups do not engage in this behaviour, attention has also focused on instances of racism and far-right politics (Testa and Armstrong, 2010; Doidge, 2015a; 2015b). Attempts to regulate these practices have led to a feeling of persecution that manifests itself in ‘ACAB syndrome’ against the police and authorities (Stefanini, 2009; Doidge, 2015a). ACAB is an
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Ultras