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key roles in these developments because of the significant and increasing impact of HAIs on hospital costs, or of the role of economists at national policymaking levels. 3 To present the history of hospital infection control, or wider AMR, as the result of scientific discovery, or episodic crisis, is naïve, but understandable, if one draws primarily on medical and/or scientific primary literature. 4 This is literature often produced or co-produced by those whose reputations were built upon it – especially the microbiologists, clinicians and epidemiologists
Chapter 5 . The costs of war Lieutenancy finance A s we have seen, the work of the lieutenancies grew rapidly during the Elizabethan wars into many areas of activity, many of them very expensive. The issue of local finance is perhaps the most neglected aspect of the impact of war on the Elizabethan state; no county historian has addressed it fully, which is particularly striking given the very large amounts of money concerned.1 This chapter aims to fill this gap, looking, firstly, at how much money was raised, when and why; secondly, at how this was done; and
4 The private economic costs of adult disability John Cullinan and Seán Lyons Introduction There has been a protracted debate in Ireland concerning the possible Âintroduction of a ‘cost of disability payment’, a cash payment that takes into account the extra and unavoidable expenditures that are incurred by Âindividuals with a disability and their families. The importance of this issue has been acknowledged by, amongst others, the Commission on the Status of Disabilities in Ireland and the United Nations, since addressing the extra economic costs of disability
9 The costs of community living for people with intellectual disabilities Aoife Callan Introduction International trends favouring greater presence in the community on the part of adults with intellectual disability have strengthened in recent years (Mansell et al., 2007; NDA, 2008). Thus far, this process of ‘deinstitutionalisation’ is at varying degrees of progress across developed countries. In the United States, for example, the population of people with intellectual disabilities living in public institutions peaked at 194,650 in 1967; by 2004, this number
economy, which had seemed to be booming in 1854, was suffering badly from the war effort. Trade diminished and, with 310,000 men drafted into the army, the agrarian workforce was hard hit, resulting in food shortages in the cities. By contrast, the flourishing British economy was able and prepared to pay for expensive sanitary and medical improvements as well as all the other costs of the war. In 1853 the British government spent £15.3 million on its army and navy, or 27.7 percent of the central government’s budget including debt interest. In 1856 the cost of the armed
Dynamic optimisation problems in discrete time, with fixed endpoints and fixed terminal time: necessary conditions for a maximum in terms of the Hamiltonian. Extensions to cases of variable endpoints and constraints on the controls. Introduction to dynamic programming: Bellman's principle of optimality, problems with an infinite horizon. Economic applications: consumption and saving, investment with costs of adjustment.
The exponential function and its properties. Natural logarithms. Continuous compounding and discounting. 'The economist’s favourite approximation.' Growth rates of economic variables, in discrete and continuous time.
even if nothing is currently being extracted. If the mine is shut down permanently, then this fixed cost is no longer incurred and nor are any further costs. 3 Defining q
Arithmetic and geometric progressions. Limits of sequences. Present values and compound values of income streams. Limits and continuity of functions.
Marginal interpretation of Lagrange multipliers. Envelope theorems. Economic applications: cost functions and indirect utility functions. Optimisation subject to inequality constraints: the Karush-Kuhn-Tucker theorem. Sufficient conditions for a constrained optimum.