This chapter puts the interpretation of the distribution of surnames in modern times into a three-dimensional context, not only to see the expansion in numbers of individuals bearing particular surnames, but to see whether it is possible to estimate the degree to which surnames have been subject to geographical mobility. It briefly examines the advantages and limitations of a range of sources which are available for this purpose covering the last five hundred years, with a few illustrative examples showing how they can be used. For the intervening centuries, until the 1881 census index is published, the surname detective is advised to concentrate on a much more limited geographical area. There is certainly nothing compiled nationally before 1837 which matches the records of civil registration or the census, though there are 'censuses' earlier than 1841.
Prognostication proceeds from the consideration of causes or signs, and so one has to ask whether one has genuinely understood these or whether one is jumping to foolish conclusions. Divination differs from prognostication because it does not proceed from signs or argument, as prognostication does. Divination deals with things in the past and present as much as with things in the future, and so it is far beyond the reach of human understanding. Magicians use various aids to assist their divinations. These people have an overt pact with an evil spirit because they know that nothing is more pleasing to him than when humans fall into idolatrous worship. There are two main types of divination: oracles or demonomancy, and magical trickery. These include a lot of prognostication and little bits of prophecy.
Before the First World War, there were few military psychiatrists in the British Army. Traumatised soldiers presented in a variety of ways during the First World War, though the diagnosis doctors had the greatest difficulty understanding was shell shock. The doctors at greatest personal danger were regimental medical officers attached to fighting units in the front line. They shared the hazards of the infantry and were often casualties themselves. This chapter considers the experience of those British doctors thrown into the front-line treatment of 'shell shock' disorders in the First World War - an experience which produced profound disillusionment in many, and which received little support or recognition from the medical and military establishments. Despite having advanced the understanding of psychiatric disorders, many Royal Army Medical Corps physicians were disillusioned by their experiences.
First Moroccan Crisis led to decision to exchange views among French and British General Staffs; Britain expects to be asked for support in case of war. British Chancellor of the Exchequer warned against further German expansion; Britain will not stand aside in conflict between France and Germany. On 30th August 1911 Churchill suggested alliance with France and Russia; promised to safeguard Belgium in case of war. Esher talked to Asquith at Balmoral; Asquith opposed plan of landing British troops in France rather than in Belgium, but is told that French and British General Staffs have already worked out detailed plans. Joffre considered political implications of potential violation of Belgian neutrality; France will wait for Germany to cross Belgian border first. The General Staff of the French Army considered that Germany is France's main potential enemy.
French Superior Council refused to permit a violation of Belgian neutrality, but French forces could enter Belgium at the first news of her violation by the Germany army. Memorandum by Grey, Churchill, and Lloyd George Memorandum intended to serve as a basis for Lord Haldane's mission. Tirpitz summarized the political demands to be made of England. Haldane met with Wilhelm II and Tirpitz; Tirpitz insisted that naval laws cannot be altered even to accommodate an Anglo-German agreement. Bethmann Hollweg concerned that naval building plans would jeopardize Anglo-German agreement; attempted to use Haldane to undermine Tirpitz. Military and Naval leaders provided details of their agreements with Britain. Military leaders outlined necessity of advancing through Luxembourg and Belgium; civilians rejected this for fear of losing international support. Relief in Paris that Britain did not sign up to an agreement with Germany concerning possible British neutrality in a future war.
As per Moltke's memorandum, Germany cannot afford to respect Belgian neutrality in future war; Britain will be found on the side of Germany's enemies. Relations between Russia and Austria-Hungary declined; Austria was getting exasperated with threat from Serbia. San Giuliano, in his speech to the Chamber of Deputies, told that Italy will not be a spectator but determined to play role of Great Power. French military considered Balkan Wars good opportunity for European war as it would ensure Russian support which would otherwise not be guaranteed. German desired to appear provoked during the Scutari crisis to ensure British neutrality. Wilhelm II and Chief of General Staff put pressure on Belgium to remain neutral in case of European war and allow German troops to march through Belgian territory. Jagow informed the Kaiser about the latest events in the Liman von Sanders crisis.
Liman von Sanders crisis nearly resolved; Russia was anxious for continued good relations with Britain. Jagow considered Lichnowsky's worries about British role in future war unfounded. Buchanan told to Nicolson that Russia will win arms race with Germany. Bethmann Hollweg speculated about likely British attitude in European war. Colonel Knox's Memorandum for Henry Wilson: Russian military increases; favourable assessment of Russian military ability; estimation of Russia's future military strength. Jagow thought on the value of Austria-Hungary as an ally to Germany; Nicolson feared that Russia might gravitate towards Germany and that the alliance system might be revised in the near future. Britain seemed disinterested in prospect of Anglo-Russian alliance; French Ambassador feared that rejection might lead the Russians into Germany's arms. Anglo-Russian naval convention was seen as important step towards creating Franco-Russian-British alliance. Moltke demanded army increases following 3-year service law in France.
Since the confessor acts in the dual role of judge and doctor, it is easy to appreciate that he must fulfil the duties of both. He plays the part of judge when he simply hears confessions, for then in binding and loosing he acts in the place of God. Del Rio summarises the kind of detail the confessor should seek to obtain from his penitent. There are certain points a confessor needs to observe. Some relate to his questioning of the penitent; some to preparation of the mind for confession; some to the obligation of making reparation; and some to the giving of absolution. Those who make light of learning superstitious ceremonies and practising them should be warned that the inventor of all superstitious and vain observances is the Devil who from the beginning of the world has seduced almost the entire human race into idolatry in an instant.
Del Rio lists points made by Farinacci concerning the discretion judges may use in cases of malefice when the attendant circumstances are taken into account. These are: it spreads a bad example; it takes place at night when people are off their guard; it takes place in secret, like the more serious kinds of murder; and it harms those who are bound by close relationship. There is general agreement that the indications required at each stage of a judicial process which is particularly serious for the accused must be clearer, more plausible, and more relevant than for the preceding stage. It is common legal opinion that workers of harmful magic and astrologers can be questioned under torture about their associates. Del Rio quotes a variety of both Medieval and modem sources, showing that the Devil tries to persuade people that magic is not as harmful as is usually maintained.
This chapter assesses what elite women understood about their bodies, how they obtained this knowledge and how, confronted with other medical epistemologies, women justified their knowledge of their own bodies as valid. Although elite women probably attended births less frequently than women of more modest social origins, certainly the Nassau sisters made efforts to attend their sisters in childbed. The Nassau sisters' system of knowledge was not entirely exterior to their bodies, but linked to what they could feel through their bodies. They did absorb and accept certain aspects of obstetrical and gynaecological knowledge from the faculties, but also rejected other aspects, so as to create their own understandings based on their personal experiences and notions of their bodies. However, female knowledge of pregnancy was by no means innate, even if it relied on sensory perceptions of the body.