The concluding chapter summarises the narrative of the book, its significance being the illumination of the complex interplay between the circus, imperialism and national identity, shedding light on a previously overlooked aspect of cultural history. By unpacking the symbolism and narratives woven into the fabric of the circus, it invites readers to reconsider the role of entertainment in shaping societal attitudes and perceptions during a pivotal period in history. By delving into the German and British national narratives that underpinned the circus, it has unearthed the intricate and entangled layers of meaning embedded within its performances and spectacles. Moreover, it briefly examines the post-war trajectory of the circus in both Germany and Britain, offering insights into how this captivating form of entertainment evolved in the aftermath of global conflict. Looking ahead, this conclusion outlines promising avenues for future research at the juncture of popular culture studies and cultural history, suggesting a rich terrain for further exploration into the modern circus.
Chapter four elucidates contrasting approaches to the portrayal of difference in the British and German circuses during the interwar period. While the British circus showcased imperial subjects, the German circus tapped into anti-imperial themes to captivate audiences. Central to this dynamic was the fascination with American Indians, revered as symbols of exoticism and noble savagery within the German circus scene. The chapter delves into the profound impact of Native American culture on the German circus, exploring how it fuelled public enthusiasm and shaped circus performances. In interwar Germany, where imperial aspirations were connected to debates over the loss of its colonial possessions, Wild West shows featuring Native Americans emerged as a powerful anti-imperial fantasy. At the forefront of this phenomenon was the Sarrasani Circus, notably led by director Hans Stosch-Sarrasani senior, who himself embraced a cowboy persona. Through authentic encounters with Lakota performers from the Pine Ridge Reservation, framed as kindred spirits of the German people, the circus offered audiences a glimpse into a romanticised frontier world. By situating this spectacle within a transnational framework of imperial othering, the chapter reveals how both imperial and anti-imperial motifs operated within the same cultural context. Furthermore, it underscores the disparity between the idealised portrayal of American Indians in the circus and the harsh realities faced by the Lakota Indians residing on American reservations.
Chapter three explores the roots of the modern circus’s dual tendencies towards nationalisation and globalisation, tracing them back to earlier imperial displays. It focuses on the circus’s integration of nineteenth-century ethnographic show practices and presentations of racial and bodily differences. As interwar circuses thrived on these older representations of difference, the chapter highlights the case of the Padaung women, or ‘giraffe-neck women’, from Upper Burma, exhibited at British circuses as a means of imperial and national reaffirmation. Transferring nineteenth-century ethnographic traditions to twentieth-century entertainment, the circus offered a simplified, nationally recognisable portrayal of Southeast Asia, particularly Burma, as imperial others. By analysing visual and textual sources, the chapter illustrates how the circus provided audiences with mirrors reflecting their national concerns around race, empire and gender. Examining photographs of the Padaung women during their circus stint in England reveals a recurring contrast between the English centre and the Burmese periphery of the empire. Additionally, the chapter addresses the construction of authenticity through the circus’s recruitment and presentation of the group, emphasising the unequal power dynamics between producers and performers. Furthermore, the chapter raises questions about the silencing and absence of non-European voices in circus archives, echoing discussions from nineteenth-century ethnographic exhibitions and freak shows. It initiates a dialogue on twentieth-century circus entertainment’s engagement with nineteenth-century othering practices, while also highlighting the complex interplay of race, hierarchy, gender and agency within circus dynamics.
The modern circus emerged as a captivating spectacle, showcasing acts from across the globe – a vibrant amalgamation of diverse individuals, animals and daring feats. Worlds of the ring contends that these displays of diversity served as affirmations of national symbols, practices and narratives. This introductory chapter unveils a previously overlooked cultural history of the circus in Britain and Germany during the interwar period, contributing a fresh perspective to the study of popular culture. It explores the early manifestations of cultural globalisation, highlighting the circus as a microcosm of interwar popular entertainment. Circuses functioned as catalysts for social discourse and the construction of national identity. Performers, directors and audiences engaged in lively negotiations surrounding contemporary visions of nationality and its others. The chapter delves into the intricate relationship between the construction of the nation and the foreign others presented within the German and British circus, offering a dynamic stage for interwar debates.
The fifth and final chapter shows how the modern circus navigated the increased influence of state control while also maintaining its international character at the beginning of the Second World War. As a form of wartime entertainment, the circus occupied a tenuous position between being subject to the expectations of authorities and those of audiences, with pleasure and propaganda functioning as interrelated categories. The chapter investigates how the circus was drawn in and resisted these national pulls in Britain and Germany, and the growing sentiments against each other. Through a close reading of 1939 and 1940 circus programmes, the chapter assesses the interplay of controlling and persuading audiences through plays of national propaganda and exotic escapism, which allowed a surprising continuity of international entertainment. On the inside, however, the cracks among the international community of show people were highly visible. Through newspaper clippings, the chapter assesses the underlying anti-German, anti-British and anti-international sentiments within the circus industry in both countries. Whilst circus directors and performers navigated these internal debates and the strains of the war overall, audiences voiced their expectations and disappointments over wartime circus entertainment, which are investigated through newspaper reviews and diaries of circus show attendees.
This chapter delves into the evolution of the modern circus, shedding light on its intricate interplay between national origins and international influences. While the genesis of the modern circus can be traced back to specific national contexts, it undeniably tapped into global connections and exotic imagery to craft narratives of national identity. While prior scholarship has extensively explored the emergence of the modern circus in the eighteenth century and its subsequent flourishing during the Georgian and Victorian eras, this chapter examines its quest for identity as it entered the twentieth century. Originally amalgamating rougher traditions associated with fairs and theatres, the modern circus found itself at a crossroads amidst the burgeoning influence of American mass culture. This juncture marked a pivotal moment for the circus, prompting cultural elites in Britain and Germany to reevaluate its direction. Circus directors, performers and fan associations embarked on a mission to redefine the essence of the modern circus. The aftermath of the First World War served as a catalyst for this reformation, as it engendered a renewed emphasis on professionalism and national heritage, while circuses were also competing for audience attention. Against a backdrop of economic, social and political upheaval, the modern circus in Britain and Germany underwent a profound metamorphosis, reinventing itself to align with shifting public sentiments and aspirations. The dynamics of domestic and international circus travel further shaped the evolution of the modern circus during this transformative period, highlighting its adaptability and resilience in the face of changing societal landscapes.
European animal trainers portrayed themselves as ‘Orientals’ while demonstrating their prowess with wild animals. Positioned at the crossroads of gender and imperial studies, this chapter unveils the intricate dynamics of these trainers’ agency in orchestrating performances with wild animals. Central to the argument is the assertion that these animal trainers strategically employed ‘Oriental’ motifs to anchor national spectacles within the framework of the modern circus. Against the backdrop of the interwar period, characterised by the reliance of circuses on international and, to some extent, global networks, the prominence of ‘Oriental’ themes in the display of wild animals soared. However, far from being mere exotic superfluities, these representations served a dual purpose: they not only catered to international tastes but also bolstered national identities, particularly in Germany and Britain. By presenting themselves as compassionate guardians of wildlife while simultaneously revealing their ferocity within the ring, these performances provided audiences with a reflection of their own national character. In essence, this chapter unveils the complex interplay between exoticism, national identity and the public’s perception of wildlife, shedding light on the nuanced ways in which the modern circus navigated the currents of global culture and imperial ideologies.
Circuses and their grand arenas shaped the entertainment industry between the wars and excited both small-town and big-city audiences. Worlds of the ring makes an original and significant contribution to the history of popular culture by highlighting the correlation between the modern circus’s evolution and modes of imperialism and nationalism. Through the cases of the German Sarrasani and the British Bertram Mills circuses, this study examines how these enterprises animated both the nation and its others for popular audiences. Circuses and performers constructed different worlds for their audiences and for themselves, and the book looks at this cultural history of European circuses between 1918 and 1945 from a transnational perspective. The interwar era’s interrelated international and national forces shaped the modern circus, which the book recovers through the lives of different people involved in this industry. Through the concept of Orientalism, it probes the mechanisms at play in depicting foreign and exotic worlds in the circus. It is based on a variety of sources, including newspapers, legal documents, advertisements, economic correspondence, photographs and performers’ archives. Worlds of the ring offers a new understanding of circus as a form of interwar popular culture, its globalisation and anchoring in European imperialism at the beginning of the twentieth century.
This short chapter begins with a brief and largely speculative account of Peterloo from the perspective of carers. It then reflects on the application of social context to nurse reputations, and the recoverable evidence of nurses’ lives, for a revised appreciation of women and men who nursed. It argues that nurse reputations fluctuated at the same time that most nursing work was fulfilled adequately or well. Pre-professional nursing may have lacked formal training, but it did secure some forms of recognition and success. The book concludes by sketching out some avenues for future research in the history of pre-reform nursing.
Nurse employers from the late seventeenth to the early nineteenth centuries inhabited a culture which made dogmatic statements about nurse behaviour. This chapter considers the ideal nurse in practical and fictional literature, with a particular focus on the writings of Sarah Trimmer, and her diametric opposite, dubbed here the ‘anti-nurse’, subject to reproach and satire. These templates and assumptions around female nurses serve as a backdrop to the evidence of nursing care, written first in the diaries and letters of patients or their families and then from the perspective of the nurses. Domestic nurses might have been either paid or unpaid. This chapter recognises that it is difficult to retrieve material from the perspective of the paid nurse – women employed to nurse others in their homes left no discernible personal papers – but that we can still learn about the practical and affective aspects of nursing by looking at the letters, diaries, and memoirs of unpaid nurses. The chapter considers the accounts of unmarried women with literary aspirations who nursed their relations and others without direct material reward. Personal and biographical material for literary figures such as Mary Lamb are linked back to the social contexts raised in the chapter to characterise domestic nursing as physically challenging and emotionally harrowing. The chapter concludes with a survey of the risks to nurses which to date have formed little part of our understanding of the role.